Chromium is a nutritionally essential trace element. The essentiality of chromium in the diet was established in 1959 by Schwartz, as cited in Present Knowledge in Nutrition, page 571, fifth edition (1984, the Nutrition Foundation, Washington, DC). Chromium depletion is characterized by the disturbance of glucose, lipid and protein metabolism and by a shortened lifespan. Chromium is essential for optimal insulin activity in all known insulin-dependent systems (Boyle et al., Southern Med. J. 70:1449-1453, 1977). Insufficient dietary chromium has been linked to both maturity-onset diabetes and to cardiovascular disease.
The principle energy sources for the body are glucose and fatty acids. Chromium depletion results in biologically ineffective insulin and compromised glucose metabolism. Under these conditions, the body must rely primarily on lipid metabolism to meet its energy requirements, resulting in the production of excessive amounts of acetyl-CoA and ketone bodies. Some of the documented acetyl-CoA is converted to increased cholesterol biosynthesis, resulting in hypercholesterolemia. Diabetes mellitus is characterized in large part by glycosuria, hypercholesterolemia, and often ketoacidosis. The accelerated atherosclerotic process seen in diabetics is associated with hypercholesterolemia (Boyle et al., supra.).
Dietary supplementation of chromium to normal individuals has been reported to lead to improvements in glucose tolerance, serum lipid concentrations, including high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, insulin and insulin binding (Anderson, Clin. Psychol. Biochem. 4:31-41, 1986). Supplemental chromium in the trivalent form, e.g. chromic chloride, is associated with improvements of risk factors associated with adult-onset (Type 11) diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
Chromium functions as a cofactor for insulin. It binds to the insulin receptor and potentiates many, and perhaps all, of its functions (Boyle et al., supra.). These functions include, but are not limited to, the regulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. (Present Knowledge in Nutrition, supra, at p. 573-577). The introduction of inorganic chromium compounds per se into individuals is not particularly beneficial. Chromium must be converted endogenously into an organic complex or must be consumed as a biologically active molecule. Only about 0.5% of ingested inorganic chromium is assimilated into the body (Recommended Daily Allowances, Ninth Revised Edition, The National Academy of Sciences, page 160, 1980). Only 1-2% of most organic compounds is assimilated into the body.
U.S. Pat. No. Re. 33,988 discloses that when selected essential metals, including chromium, are administered to mammals as exogenously synthesized coordination complexes of picolinic acid, they are directly available for absorption without competition from other metals. This patent describes a composition and method for selectively supplementing the essential metals in the human diet and for facilitating absorption of these metals by intestinal cells. These complexes are safe, inexpensive, biocompatible and easy to produce. These exogenously synthesized essential metal coordination complexes of picolinic acid (pyridine-2-carboxylic acid) have the following structural formula: ##STR1## wherein M represents the metallic cation and n is equal to the cation's valence. For example, when M is Cr and n=3, then the compound is chromic tripicolinate. Other chromium picolinates disclosed include chromic monopicolinate and chromic dipicolinate.
The U.S. Recommended Daily Intake (RDI) of chromium is 120 .mu.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,087,623, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference, describes the administration of chromic tripicolinate for the treatment of adult-onset diabetes in doses ranging from 50 to 500 .mu.g. International Patent Application No. WO96/35421 discloses the use of high doses of chromic tripicolinate (providing 1,000-10,000 .mu.g chromium/day) for reducing hyperglycemia and stabilizing the level of serum glucose in humans with Type II diabetes. Allowed U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/908,819 discloses a chromic tripicolinate-biotin composition and its use in lowering blood glucose levels in humans with Type II diabetes.
U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,087,623; 5,087,624; and 5,175,156, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference, disclose the use of chromium tripicolinate for supplementing dietary chromium, reducing hyperglycemia and stabilizing serum glucose, increasing lean body mass and reducing body fat, and controlling blood serum lipid levels, including the lowering of undesirably high blood serum LDL-cholesterol levels and the raising of blood serum HDL-cholesterol levels. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,954,492 and 5,194,615, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference, describe a related complex, chromic polynicotinate, which is also used for supplementing dietary chromium and lowering serum lipid levels. Picolinic acid and nicotinic acid are position isomers having the following structures: ##STR2##
Nicotinic acid and picolinic acid form coordination complexes with monovalent, divalent and trivalent metal ions and facilitate the absorption of these metals by transporting them across intestinal cells and into the bloodstream. Chromium absorption in rats following oral administration of CrCl.sub.3 was facilitated by the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) aspirin and indomethacin (Davis et al., J. Nutrition Res. 15:202-210, 1995; Kamath et al., J. Nutrition 127:478-482, 1997). These drugs inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase which converts arachidonic acid to various prostaglandins, resulting in inhibition of intestinal mucus formation and lowering of intestinal pH which facilitates chromium absorption.
The present invention provides improved chromic tripicolinate and chromic polynicotinate compositions which facilitate absorption of chromium and other endogenous or exogenous metals, for use in lowering blood glucose levels, serum lipid levels and increasing lean body mass.